Caucasian Carpets
During recent years antique Caucasian rugs have exerted a greater appeal to connoisseurs than was hitherto the case. Prayer rugs or namazliks are not so dominant as they are in the Turkish group, though quite a large number occur from time to time, particularly in Daghestans. In general, Caucasian rugs are very colourful, and therein lies their appeal. All Caucasians are made with a Turkish knot.
Kazak
The largest group is undoubtedly the Kazak, wherein there are a number of subdivisions which are generally ignored by most collectors, with the exception of Chelaberds, often called ‘Eagle Kazaks’, which are really from the Karabagh area and Bordjalous. Kazaks, in general, are woven from thick lustrous wool with a longer pile than most other rugs, and the texture is sturdy and usually fairly coarse, with knotting varying between 6.5 and 14 sq cm (42 to 90 sq in). Colours are strong, and include Khila (Baku)
At one time these rugs were more often called Baku, but today’s opinion comes down on the side of Khila, although they come from the Baku area. They are different from all other Caucasian rugs in colouring and in design. The colour is duller and not so vivid, and consists of dark and light blue, shades of brown, yellow and tan and black. The main design – and the most usual – is a long narrow field carrying two or more rhomboidal medallions delineated by stepped outlines, with the corners of the field matching the medallions. If several medallions are present, they are set on larger rhombs in a contrasting colour, the intervening half rhombs matching the inner medallions.
The main ornamentation consists of larger botch or cones which cover the field and are very heavily ornamented and of a strong rectangular form. Knotting is on the coarse side, varying from 6.5 to 15.25 to the sq cm (42 to 99 sq in) and the texture is fairly firm.
Derbend
Mostly on the coarse side, with knotting varying between a mere 4.5 and 16.75 to the sq cm (30 and 100 sq in). However, there arc few to be found at the finer end of the scale, representing the earlier productions. There are two or three shoots of wool weft between every two rows of knots. Warp is usually wool, though frequently brown goat hair was used. Designs are varied, often with the field occupied by a number of medallions, sometimes filled with small stepped rhombs and similar devices. Usually, there are three border stripes, but more in the older and finer pieces. The main colours are red, blue, brown and ivory.
Chichi
These rugs are nearly always in small sizes, and the fields are covered with either horizontal or diagonal rows of small stepped polygons in differing colours. The most distinctive feature, however, is the main border stripe, which consists of alternate rosettes and diagonal bands which have been squared by the addition of stylized trifoliate forms. Colours are rich, and include light and dark blue, red and ivory, with a little yellow, green and brown. Texture is fairly firm, with knotting varying from 8.75 to 18.50 to the sq cm (56 to 120 sq in), the back being flat and not ribbed.
Talish
These rugs are always long and narrow and have an air of character, they are not very common. The most characteristic feature is the main border stripe which is invariably composed of a large rosette alternating with four tiny squared rosettes arranged in a square. Both the rosettes and squares appear in a variety of colours. The field, always long and narrow, is usually blue, often plain, though there might be one or two small rosettes capriciously placed in any position on the field. Very occasionally, the field is covered with eight-pointed stars arranged in a diaper pattern. Texture is rather loose, and knotting coarse, around 16.50 to the sq cm (100 sq in).
Kuba
From the Kuba district comes a great variety of designs and styles, and this also includes the border designs. Nevertheless, they are not difficult to place, having silky wool, fine ordered patterning with a rather Persian styling and a general air of sophistication.
Knotting varies from 6.5 to around 18.5 to the sq cm (42 to 120 sq in), with a fairly closed look on the back, with very little of the warps showing, yet the overall texture is rather loose. Patterns may closely follow the Shirvan medallion type or, on the other hand, they may consist of refulgent star shapes arranged in horizontal and diagonal rows, in differing colours, in glowing colours. Again, they might borrow formalized rosettes and other devices from other areas, but arrange them in an ordered fashion of their own.
Borders often are of the rosette and bracket type, and usually with three border stripes. But there are many other main stripes, a popular one being of alternate diamond-shaped rosettes and four serrated leaves arranged in a quadrangular form. Colours are rich, with medium and dark blue, red, ivory, sable brown, green and yellow.
Lesghi
Lesghi rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans, but generally the large eight-pointed medallions occupying the field are flatter than those of Shirvan, and the corners at the diagonals where the straight lines intersect have arrowhead forms. Generally, there are more colours in Lesghi rugs, with red, blue, ivory and green predominating, and some tan and yellow. Texture is firm though the knots may be as few as 5.5 to the sq cm (36 sq in), but they may also range up to around 16.50 sq cm (100 sq in). Gendje
These rugs, which often resemble Kazaks, are much more loosely woven, so less survived to become antiques. In the Gendje there may be as many as four to eight shoots of red weft between every two rows of knots and the warps are visible from the back, and may be of wool or goat-hair. There are no designs that are typical, and this also applies to the borders. Karabagh
These rugs are woven in an area adjacent to the Persian border, and the Persian influence is very apparent in the flowing type of design, especially in the borders, which may consist of a wavy vine and flora arrangement. The reds of these rugs are very characteristic, having a marked pinkish tendency not seen in any other Caucasian pieces, while the indigo blues are almost black. Medium and light blues are also used, though somewhat sparingly, and ivory white and yellow. Occasionally there is green.
In the field the patterns tend towards the use of medallions, which can be either lightly or heavily ornamented. Knotting tends to be coarse, varying from 6.5 to 16.5 to the sq cm (42 to 100 sq in), while the texture is loose. The warp is wool and is not very apparent from the back of the rug, which has a ribbed appearance. The weft is also of wool, which is sometimes dyed red, and there are two shoots between every two rows of knots.
Fereghan
Within this group there are two main types – in one the field is covered with an all-over pattern, and in the other a pole medallion is set upon a shaped field of plain colour and the corners covered with a closely packed all-over design.
In the first type the most common design is the Herati, so called because it was very common in rugs from Herat. It consists of a central quadrant with a rosette in the centre, from the corners of which palmettes spring. From the sides of the quadrant stalks extend with curved serrated leaves. This pattern is repeated all over the field, so closely set that it almost obscures the ground colour of the carpet. When the Herati pattern is used there are usually small cut-off corners to the field.
Less frequently seen is a repetitive form of the Gul-i-Hinnai pattern –a design based upon the henna plant, with light coloured flowers.
The most common border design is the well-known ‘turtle’ style, which is really a palmetto with an extension on either side at the top which gives the impression of a turtle with clippers. These are alternatively reversed and joined together by dainty tendrils and vines. Most frequently the borders have an almond green ground which has been attacked by the dye used so that the border is embossed against the green ground. Other borders used are generally based upon a vine and rosette combination.
Colours used are a deep indigo blue and red, with some light blue, green, yellow and ivory. Texture is firm, and knotting varies from coarse with 8.75 knots to the sq cm (56 sq in) to fairly fine with up to 36.25 (234), the knots being Persian. Warp and weft are made of cotton.
Ispahans
It is normal to refer to antique carpets from this area as Ispahans, and modern products as Isfahans. Both types demonstrate superb workmanship, the antique types going back to late 16th and 17th centuries when Isfahan was the newly created capital of Shah Abbas.
The most usual design is, appropriately, the Shah Abbas, which consists of intricate scrolls and arabesques terminating in palmettes. In the very old pieces cloudbands were often introduced. Borders were wide, with large palmettes and other floral and foliate motifs. In the 16th century the motifs were small and the design well balanced, but with time the designs became larger. Usual colours were a red field with dark blue border, though occasionally a blue field turns up with a dark green border. Touches of ivory and yellow were also used. Almost all the pieces from this period are large carpet sizes.
Warps and wefts are mostly cotton, though wool was also used ; sometimes cotton and wool were twisted together. The Turkish knot is used, varying from 7.5 to 19.5 knots to the sq cm (48 to 126 sq in). The texture is firm and the back flat.
Kashan
The weavers of Kashan produced an astonishing number of excellent pieces of tight stout weave and superb designing, especially in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The later pieces are all well designed with the fields filled with flowing foliate designs in rich ruby reds, shades of blue, green, ivory, yellow and a characteristic light brown. The outer guard stripe of the border almost invariably consists of a reciprocal trefoil or more rarely a sawtooth pattern, while the secondary guards carry a flower and tendril pattern.
Texture is extremely firm and the Persian knots very fine, varying from 39.75 to 74.5 to the sq cm (256 to 480 sq in) the weave being so tight that the sides often curl under. Warps are usually cotton, and the fine cotton wefts are normally dyed blue giving the back of the rug a characteristic blue appearance.
Selma
Most rugs from Kurdistan are stout and heavy but Selina produces some of the lightest, thinnest rugs in all Persia. The workmanship is superb. Unlike most weavers, those of Selina only use one shoot of weft between every two rows of knots and this shows up on the back with a quincunx appearance, and also leads to a very characteristic feel of roughness when the hand is rubbed over the back of a Selina rug.
Designs are mostly small all-over diaper patterns, using the botch or cone design, small floral designs, and the Herati pattern. Some of the older pieces have a medallion on which a further small medallion is superimposed, both covered with small repeated motifs. Borders of only three stripes and occasionally just two are the rule, the main stripe mostly being of the ‘turtle’ type on a yellow ground. Knotting is fine, varying between 20.25 and 74.5 to the sq cm (130 and 480 sq in), and is almost invariably in the Turkish knot. Warps are generally cotton and the overcasting in wool, but sometimes the warps are of linen or silk and the overcasting at the sides silk, usually in a purple shade.
Tabriz
This is one of the greatest weaving areas of Persia and has produced many fine pieces. This area, like most of Western Persia, used the Turkish knot, and knotting varies from medium, at 18.5 to the sq cm (120 sq in), to very fine at 68.25 (740).
There are no really typical designs of this area, for the weavers copied anything, but the workmanship is good. Many of the patterns are of the medallion and corner type, and the drawing is good. In both wool and silk products the red has a typical brick tone which helps to distinguish this type, the other main colours being blue and ivory, though a great number of subsidiary colours are employed.
Heriz
Rugs from this area are noted for their stout construction, the Turkish knotting varying from a mere 4.5 to the sq cm (30 sq in) to as many as 18.5 (120). Designs are extremely geometric, hard and angular, with no suggestion of softening. All are carried out in light blue, red, yellow, reddish-brown, green and ivory, and usually a little black. Both warp and weft is white cotton, with two shoots between every two rows of knots, the weft showing at the back of the rug. Heriz rugs are rather more square than most Persian carpets.
Kirman
Unlike many of the modern products, antique Kirmans are attractive pieces, beautifully made and designed, with lovely soft colourings, including characteristic rose red and rose pink. Designs are very varied, covering such styles as floral designs, medallions and corner hunting carpets and figured rugs, all depicted with charm and delicacy.
The weavers of Kirman used more colours in their rugs than almost any other type, as many as 15 appearing in one rug. In addition to rose red and rose pink there may also be green, yellow, brown, ash grey, ivory and shades of blue. The Selina knot is used, with anything from 18.5 to 62 to sq cm (120 to 400 sq in), giving a very fine texture. Warps are cotton, while the fine wefts are usually wool, often dyed blue. The main border stripe is always floral in character.
Shiraz
Rugs from this area were and are made from a soft flocky wool which is semi-translucent and imparts a brilliance to the colours that enriches the appearance of the whole rug. Unfortunately the wool was not very hard wearing, and antiques from this area are usually well worn. Most of the pieces on the market today are from the latter half of the 19th century.
Designs vary, owing mainly to tribal differences, for they are the product of nomads, and the motifs are the usual disjointed agglomeration typical of nomads. In the finer qualities the arrangement of the motifs is more regular and also more balanced. Typically there is an extra chequered border at either end of the rug. Sometimes the field design may consist of vertical or diagonal rows of boteh in differing colours. Sides of the rugs are invariably overcast with a two colour effect or in short lengths of different colours. Warps are of wool or of goat hair, and the weft is wool, usually dyed red. Texture is loose. Both Persian and Turkish knotting occurs, according to the sub-tribe producing the rug, and there are from 8.75 to 22.25 knots to the sq cm (56 to 144 sq in).
Joshaghan
The Joshaghan area has produced many fine pieces in the past, and the most common design covers the field with small diamond-shaped panels in a diaper pattern, each panel being enlivened with small floral motifs, the main colours being dark indigo blue and red with the addition of green, yellow, brown and ivory. There is usually a small diamond-shaped medallion in the centre bearing a similar design to the field, while the corners are cut off with narrow saw-toothed lines. The main border stripe is usually floral, often arranged in a rather quadrangular form.
Knotting varies between 8.75 to 21.75 Turkish knots to the sq cm (56 to 140 sq in). The back is slightly ribbed, and the texture on the firm side. The warp is cotton, and the weft is wool usually of natural colour but sometimes dyed red or brown.
Bidjar
These rugs are noted for their stoutness, both in substance and in wearing qualities. They have stout wool warps and the weavers pull the knots so tightly when knotting that one warp thread encircled by the pile is pulled behind the other, doubling the thickness of the back. This gives a fabric feeling as firm as a board which should never be folded, only rolled. Wefts, too, are of wool, which is fairly coarse and usually dyed red.
Designs vary, often consisting of a central medallion and corners set on a plain field, or a field covered with a lattice bearing small floral forms. The field may be covered with sprays of roses, or may be a hotchpotch of flowers, and animal and human forms. Colours are a rosy red, light and dark blue, ivory, yellow, green and brown.
Meshed
These have a medallion set in a field of floral traceries. A characteristic is the peculiar red with a slight purple tinge that local dyers produce. There are two types of Meshed: those tied with the Persian knot called Farsibaff and the finer Turkbuff pieces tied with the Turkish knot.
Texture is fairly firm, and the weave is medium, the knotting varying from between 15 and 31 to the sq cm (96 and 200 sq in). Apart from the purplish red, there are also blues, green, yellow and ivory.

Antique Chinese Carpets

It is only in the last few decades that Chinese carpets, previously overshadowed by the enthusiasm of collectors for Persian carpets, have been given the attention they long deserved. While the quality of Chinese carpets declined at the end of the 19th century, in part due to an increasing use of chemical dyes, one of the most appealing characteristics of earlier carpets was the unsurpassed, subtle use of colour.
A full appreciation of Chinese carpets must begin with an appreciation of the role that they played in the household, for they have never been used solely as decorative floor coverings. In northern China in particular, a feature of the average home was the k’ang, a brick or tile platform that was heated from beneath and on which the family would sleep. During the day the family would remove their mattresses and lay the family carpet on top of the k’ang. Since the k’ang was a central feature of the home so too was the carpet. In their service as house warmers, carpets were also hung on the walls. The symbolic motifs on carpets, which rank closely with the use of colours in determining their appeal today, dictated where a carpet would be situated in the home. Carpets with patterns that converged on the centre were placed on the floor; others were used as wall hangings.
The 19th century has been chosen as the point from which to take this brief look at Chinese carpets for with the arrival of chemical dyes the quality of colours in rugs changed completely. Chemical dyes destroyed the sheen and oils in the wool, making it stiff and dry so that the soft modulations of colour attainable with vegetable dyes were impossible to achieve.
The Use of Colour
The earliest carpets known date from about 1600, the time of the Ming Dynasty, and the use of colours was consistent throughout the succeeding two decades or so.
The most widely used colour was blue, derived from the indigo plant which produces shades from pale sky-blue ‘to black. It is possible that the Chinese used blue so much because it did not fade as other colours did, but merely became even bluer. This is useful in determining the age of a carpet, for clear blues suggest a recent carpet, while if all the colours including blue are dim then the carpet has probably been aged artificially.
Blue, though, is rarely used as a ground colour in old carpets, instead brown, white and yellow are used as the grounds for blue patterns, and in particular a soft brown was favoured. Principal shades of brown include fawn, tan, ochre and sand as well as a copper-brown called ku t’ung se. A dark brown was produced using manganese brown, but since this dye is corrosive it gives the effect of incised or punched out patterns. White comes in all shades, while yellow appears in shades from chicken yellow to honey, amber and orange. Most famous of all yellows is Imperial yellow, a pure luxurious colour that was reserved for the use of the court. Mandarin yellow has a touch of orange.
Chinese decorative motifs known as the Four Accomplishments.
There is not sufficient space here to list all the motifs used - books have been written on the subject - but an outline will give the potential collector an indication of the way the Chinese used their motifs.
The borders of very early carpets contain either a meander in the form of a T- or key pattern, swastikas, or what is called the hooked cross motif, which consists of C- or S- forms in continuous lines. The swastika is the symbol for happiness or luck and when it is made continuous it means `ten thousandfold happiness’.
Chinese language characters are used but only three are used symbolically - shou, fu and shuang hsi. Shou, which means long life, is the commonest of the three and it is usually found in stylized medallion form in the centre of the carpet. The character fu, meaning luck, is more common in embroidery than in carpets, possibly because it is difficult to stylize in the same way as shou and is more difficult to knot. Shuang hsi is the name given to a double hsi character, which means wedded bliss. A single hsi is not often used. Carpets with shuang hsi motifs were often given as wedding presents.
Naturalistic motifs are widespread and usually highly stylized. The cloud motif is distinctly Chinese despite comparisons with Turkish or Persian clouds and can be found scattered singly throughout the design or in cloud banks. Mountains and water are always found together, since the Chinese name for ‘landscape’ is shan shui - mountain water. The mountains are always shown emerging from the water. Sea and mountains together symbolize long life and luck. Water is depicted in various forms: multi-coloured semi-circles for calm water, square or triangular shapes with dots above to suggest spray, for rough water.
While human beings and gods rarely appear on carpets because of difficulties in knotting them, animals have a distinctive and treasured place in the repertory. The dragon, lung, is both the best known and most spectacular animal for it has high significance in Chinese religion and philosophy, representing a powerful god and the master of the forces of nature. Not surprisingly, the dragon became the Imperial emblem. In both form and concept the Chinese dragon is very different from the Western dragon, appearing as a reptile-like creature with snake-like body, four legs and a fantastic head. Almost always associated with the dragon is the pearl, chin, which the dragon is constantly striving to reach, for the pearl means perfection. A pair of dragons are often depicted fighting over the pearl. When the dragon was adopted as the Imperial emblem it evolved into two kinds, one with five toes on each foot (the lung dragon) being the Emperor’s motif as well as that of princes of the first and second rank, while the mang dragon with only four toes was used by lesser court officials.
The dragon motif is particularly cleverly used on pillar rugs - long narrow rugs which were used to decorate pillars on festive occasions. When the carpet is viewed flat on the ground, the coils of the beast appear to make little sense, yet when the carpet is wound around the pillar the coils join up and the dragon comes to life. Pillar rugs were usually made in pairs and were favourite gifts.
The phoenix, feng huang, is a composite of several creatures and is different from the apocalyptic beast of Ancient Greece, for in China its colour was a curious red that does not contain any blue and about which there has been much speculation as to its origin. It has been suggested that the carpetmaker was aware of the mellowing influence of time on this colour and may have made it by dyeing the carpet first with a fast yellow and then with a strong red, so that as the red faded the yellow began to show itself.
Black is only used occasionally, while gray is sometimes found in bands running along the outside edge of pre-18th century carpets. Green is very rare until the advent of aniline dyes which produced rather gaudy shades of this colour.
The Chinese were masters in the art of combining colours and, unlike Persian and Caucasian rugmakers, disliked using strong, unrelated colours. Two principles guided them – colour relatedness and colour gradation. Their inclination has been to always use blue motifs on brown grounds or a white and blue, which may have been inspired by Chinese porcelain. This latter combination was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. Pale yellow and blue were often popular as were carpets simply in varying shades of blue.
Carpet Motifs
The carpet designer was fortunate in having a rich heritage of symbolic motifs on which to draw and he gave free rein to his imagination when it came to adapting and combining those motifs. Chinese carpets contain a greater diversity of motifs than any other oriental carpets and are not simply decorative, but have a language of their own.
Decorative motifs. From top: Four classic scrolls, cloud collar or lappet, six cloud scrolls.
appearance heralded a period of good fortune. The creature was a composite of pheasant, swan, crane and mandarin duck and was the symbol of the Empress.
After the dragon, fo dogs are one of the best-known motifs associated with Chinese carpets. In mythology, such dogs, which resemble lions more than dogs, were said to be the companion of the Buddha and to guard Buddhist holy places. The male dog is often depicted playing with a ball, the female with a pup between her paws.
The unicorn, ch’i lin, also differs from the Western image and some authorities feel the Chinese had two varieties, one with the body of a stag with a long straight horn and the other with the body of an ox and a short, curved horn. The ch’i lin was said to live a thousand years and appear at the birth of sages. Genuine stags, lu, also appear as motifs, often holding the sacred fungus, ling chih, which can bestow immortality, or with a stork, a symbol of long life.
Perhaps the most frequent animal to appear is the bat, fu, which since its Chinese name sounds exactly like the symbol fu, also means luck. The butterfly appears on carpets from South China instead of the bat. Other animal motifs include fishes, usually the carp, the horse, rabbit, hare and tiger.
The commonest floral motifs are the lotus, peony and chrysanthemum. The lotus is both the symbol of purity and summer and, while they are sometimes difficult to distinguish on carpets from chrysanthemums, can be recognized by their accompanying seed pods. Other floral motifs include plum blossoms, bamboo and peach blossoms, although they are somewhat rarer than the previous three. The only fruits to appear as motifs are the peach, pomegranate and the citron, for each of these three has a meaning unlike other fruits. The peach, food of the gods, symbolizes longevity, the pomegranate signifies abundant male offspring, while the citron is a symbol for happiness since its rind is supposed to develop into petals resembling the classic position of the Buddha’s hand.
The two great religions of China, Taoism and Buddhism, are also represented on carpets in the motifs of the Eight Symbols of Taoism and the Eight Symbols of Buddhism. The former are a flower basket, flute, lotus, bamboo clappers, bamboo tube and rod, crutch or staff and gourd, sword and fan. The Buddhist symbols are the canopy, two fish, urn, lotus, conch shell, umbrella, knot of destiny and the wheel of law. Another group of Taoist motifs are the Eight Immortals who were supposed to live in Paradise and represent practitioners of various trades. Other groups of motifs include the Eight Precious Things and the Four Gentlemanly Accomplishments in antique Chinese carpets.